Urbanisation: City and Urban Areas

Introduction urbanization is change magnitude in twain the developed and developing countries. However, rapid urbanization, curiously the step-up of bragging(a) cities, and the associated problems of unemployment, pauperism, in qualified come upness, scurvy sanitisation, urban slums and environmental degradation pose a formidable quarrel in umteen developing countries. Available statistics show that much than than half of the worlds 6. 6 billion the great unwashed live in urban beas, crowded into 3 percent of the earths belt down rural bea (Angotti, 1993 UNFPA, 1993).The proportion of the worlds population living in urban argonas, which was less than 5 percent in 1800 increased to 47 percent in 2000 and is expected to reach 65 percent in 2030 (United Nations, 1990 1991). However, more than 90 percent of hereafter population gain impart be concentrated in cities in developing countries and a extended percentage of this population will be silly. In Afric a and Asia where urbanization is ei thereviate considerably lower (40 percent), some(prenominal) are expected to be 54 percent urban by 2025 (UN 1995 2002).Although urbanization is the driving force for modernization, frugal growth and emergence, there is increasing concern ab let on the effectuate of expanding cities, mainly on human health, livelihoods and the environment. The implications of rapid urbanization and demographic trends for employment, food security, piddle supply, shelter and sanitation, curiously the disposal of vaunts (solid and liquid) that the cities produce are staggering (UNCED, 1992).The head refine that arises is whether the current trend in urban growth is sustainable considering the attach to urban altercates much(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) as unemployment, slum development, pauperization and environmental degradation, oddly in the developing countries. Urbanization defined Urbanization, simply defined, is the shift from a rural to an urban society, and involves an increase in the enactment of mess in urban areas during a particular year.Urbanization is the outcome of social, scotch and political developments that postulate to urban concentration and growth of striking cities, miscellanys in disembark scotch consumption and transformation from rural to sub panache systempolitan pattern of organization and governance. study causes of urbanization Natural population increase ( gritty births than conclusion) and migration are signifi arset factors in the growth of cities in the developing countries. The vivid increase is fuelled by ameliorate medical care, split up sanitation and improved food supplies, which funk death rates and cause populations to grow.In umteen a(prenominal) developing countries, it is rural poverty that drives people from the rural areas into the city in search of employment, food, shelter and education. closely people move into the urban areas because they are pushed o ut by factors such as poverty, environmental degradation, religious strife, political persecution, food insecurity and privation of primary infrastructure and operate in the rural areas or because they are pulled into the urban areas by the advantages and opportunities of the city including education, electricity, piss etc.Even though in legion(predicate) African countries the urban areas offer few jobs for the youth, they are lots attracted there by the amenities of urban life (Tarver, 1996). Processes of urbanization One significant feature of the urbanization process in right aways local anaesthetic governances is that frequently of the growth is taking place in the absence of significant industrial expansion. Although local municipalities are fast urbanizing, mega-cities defined as cities with 10 million inhabitants or more are few.Urbanization also finds expression principally in outward expansion of the built-up area and conversion of prime agricultural territorys i nto residential and industrial uses. An alternative to the leave expansion of the urban population across a wide area of the country in instal to save prime land for kitchen-gardening is to construct high-rise buildings and call down commercial development in special(prenominal) z unmatchables, which would depend on effective, appropriate technology and resources.The urbanization processes are more lots than not driven by market forces and policies of local governments that lead to simultaneous processes of change in livelihoods, land use, health and natural resources worry including pissing, soil and forests and often re prompt changes in local governance. Government development policies and budget allocations, which often favour urban residents over rural areas, lead to pull people into the urban areas.In the cities, human race investment, which often misses the urban poor, with expenditures biased towards the higher-income classes and poverty among vulnerable groups su ch as new migrants force them into slums and squatter settlements. Challenges of urbanisation Cities throughout the world exhibit an incredible diversity of characteristics, economic structures, directs of infrastructure, historic origins, patterns of growth, and degrees of formal provision. Yet, many of the problems that they face are strikingly familiar.For one thing, as cities grow, they become increasingly diverse. E truly city has its relatively more sufficient and relatively poorer neighborhoods. But in developing countries, poorer neighborhoods can brook dramatically lower levels of basic services. Consequently, a bulky number of urban residents in developing countries suffer to a greater or lesser utter close to from severe environmental health challenges associated with insufficient entry to bonnie tipsiness water, inadequate sewerage facilities, and insufficient solid thieve disposal.A major recent United Nations report on the state of water and sanitation in th e worlds cities found that water distri aloneion systems in many cities in the developing world are inadequate, typically serving the citys upper- and materialistic neighborhoods but not rapidly expanding settlements on the urban fringe. Furthermore, the current info on the provision of water and sanitation in urban areas is very atonic and the true situation is actually far worse than approximately external statistics suggest 20.The large projected increases in the numbers of urban residents in the developing world over the next 2030 historic period implies that municipal authorities responsible for these sectors face very atrocious challenges in the years ahead. In many cities, the scarcity of common water supplies forces many low-income urban residents to use other water sources such as cliquish water vendors who charge many fourth dimensions more than the local universal rate. Consequently, people in slums often must pay much more for lower property water than other urban residents 21. up(p) familiar sanitation is another major urban environmental challenge that inescapably to be immediately addressed in virtually all cities in the developing world. Failure to collect garbage as well as inadequate waste management and recycling policies and practices mean that cities are existence inundated in their own waste. In African cities, waste management has been described as a monster that has aborted most efforts do by city authorities, state and federal governments and professionals alike 22.As is the nerve of the water supply distribution network, sewerage systems are far better at meeting the consider of upper- and middle-class neighborhoods than they are of servicing poorer neighborhoods, particularly unregulated neighborhoods on the urban periphery. A major environmental crisis is looming large as many developing countries as cities discharge ever increasing amounts of waste into the air or into freshwater bodies, threatening water quality and aquatic ecosystems.The extent that urban growth affects the local ecosystem can be see to itled to around extent by high quality land management. debark is an indwelling ingredient in all urban growth, yet in most cities there make been virtually no effective measures to control land development. Although many cities concord formulated master plans at around time or another that included guidelines on land development and the future direction of urban growth, rarely, if ever, have these plans been realized.Reasons for this include poor urban governance, poor critical assumptions-urban population projections underpinning these plans have often been extremely weak-and the softness of plans to be adjusted and refined in the light of changing conditions, such as the invasion and settling of unused public space. Devising candid land development policies remains one of the largest challenges facing planners and policy makers in many cities in the developing world. Congestion in many large cities can also be extremely severe and air defilement is instantly a serious environmental concern in many cities.Concentrations of ampere-second monoxide, lead, and suspended particulate matter in many large cities greatly exceed World Health Organization guidelines. Among the greatest environmental health concerns are exposure to fine particulate matter and to lead which contributes to k directledge disability in young children. A popular reply to urban transportation congestion problems has been government investment in large-scale public transportation systems such as underground or overland metro systems. Less attention has been devoted to expanding and improving public slew networks, which tend to be overcrowded and poorly maintained.In many cities, unavowed mini-bus companies have alter a hole in the market by providing inexpensive urban transportation where standard bus routes have proved insufficient. Conclusion rough the world, especially in Africa and Asia, cities are expanding rapidly. For the majority of urban dwellers, especially the poor, determination potable water supply, affordable shelter, favorable and secure urban land for agriculture to ensure food security, securing gainful employment and improvement in health facilities would continue to remain a priority.Since restrictive urban growth policies, especially population distribution designed to reduce the rate of rural-urban migration step forward to have had limited success in many developing countries, policies must be directed at transforming the rural economy in locate to slow the rate of urban sprawl. Comprehensive land use planning and revision of planning standards and administrative procedures would, go a long way to, reduce many of the problems that face urban populations in the developing areas, especially Africa.A Vision for Healthy Urbanization in the 21st coulomb Challenges and Opportunities for China Dr Henk Bekedam WHO Representative, China Heal thy urbanization a framework for follow up in China Chinas Scientific Concept of Development rightly considers urbanization not only as means to further boost economic growth, but also as means to improve the life of people in China. In this context, given the health risks associated with urbanization, it is very appropriate and indispensable to put peoples health squarely on the urbanization agenda.Putting peoples health on the urbanization agenda is, however, a very complex line that requires concerted government policy actions across many sectors. Specifically, in order to alleviate the impact of urbanization on peoples health, government policies need to kindle quality of urban life, environmental sustainability, health awareness, equitable access to basic health-related services and accountability of local government officials and people working in private enterprises for peoples health. A. Quality of urban lifeInternational experience suggests that to promote quality of ur ban life, government particularly call for to act in three related areas First, design and develop urban peripheries for people as well as for economic activity. This includes, moving industries out of the city centers and synchronising the emergence of jobs in industries with housing and public infrastructure/services in urban peripheries. Second, design and develop user-friendly transport network. In this context, it is authorized to support public transport network and space for bicyclists and pedestrians, and thus reduce the necessity and advantages of relying on own car.Third, provide suitable space for somatogenetic activities and recreation. Cultivating green areas and escape zones in urban centers and peripheries encourages people to stay suss out and healthy. B. Environmental sustainability To promote environmental sustainability in urban development, government unavoidably to enforce strict measures toward environmental protection and support environment-friendly inv estments. Specifically, it is a all important(p) role for the government to enforce environmental standards, and invest into systems and projects improving the use of energy and energy conservation.In particular, the government needs to establish adequate pricing mechanisms for utilities to end the wasteful use of energy and water that is associated with binding price subsidies. Similarly, the government needs to enforce energy-efficient construction practices. Critical are also investments into municipal waste management and environment-friendly technologies. C. Health awareness As urbanization is changing peoples lifestyles, promoting health awareness is critical. The government particularly needs to act on two accounts.First, disseminating health information and promoting healthy lifestyles. unclouded access to information about nutrition, healthy habits, and health risks can validatoryly affect peoples behavior. To be effective, information dissemination needs to be compleme nted with active policies to support early child development, and sports and healthy habits in schools and to nurture the positive image of healthy lifestyles. For instance, cycling to work would be again a sign of advancement and not backwardness Second, developing and enforcing adequate health-related regulations.This important task involves all relevant sectors. It involves the market. It involves developing system to manage peoples gumshoe traffic safety, environmental safety, occupational safety, patient safety, food safety and make public places smoke free. Finally, it involves mechanisms toward quality and cost-control in the health system. D. Equitable access to essential health services The possible negative health effects of urbanization underline the importance of enabling all people to have access to essential health services.In this context, it would be appropriate for government to make a package of basic health services accessible to all people in urban areas, urban peripheries and rural areas (residents and be adrift population alike). This package of basic health services needs to scotch public health functions and services including the prevention of chronic diseases and essential clinical services. To finance equitable access to basic health, the government will need to ensure full funding for the basic package of health services through health insurance, medical financial assistance schemes and its own budget.E. right for peoples health In order to align the performance of local governments, public sector enterprises and agencies and private sector entities with the agenda of healthy urbanization, government needs to establish clear accountability for peoples health. In both the public and private sectors, agencies and enterprises need to bear responsibility for the health effects of their policies and actions. With respect to health services, health providers and local governments need to be accountable for ensuring equitable acces s, acceptable quality, safety, and fair price.Challenges Cities throughout the world exhibit an incredible diversity of characteristics, economic structures, levels of infrastructure, historic origins, patterns of growth, and degrees of formal planning. Yet, many of the problems that they face are strikingly familiar. For one thing, as cities grow, they become increasingly diverse. Every city has its relatively more affluent and relatively poorer neighborhoods. But in developing countries, poorer neighborhoods can have dramatically lower levels of basic services.Consequently, a large number of urban residents in developing countries suffer to a greater or lesser extent from severe environmental health challenges associated with insufficient access to clean drinking water, inadequate sewerage facilities, and insufficient solid waste disposal. A major recent United Nations report on the state of water and sanitation in the worlds cities found that water distribution systems in many c ities in the developing world are inadequate, typically serving the citys upper- and middle-class neighborhoods but not rapidly expanding settlements on the urban fringe.Furthermore, the current data on the provision of water and sanitation in urban areas is very weak and the true situation is actually far worse than most international statistics suggest 20. The large projected increases in the numbers of urban residents in the developing world over the next 2030 years implies that municipal authorities responsible for these sectors face very serious challenges in the years ahead. In many cities, the scarcity of public water supplies forces many low-income urban residents to use other water sources such as private water vendors who charge many times more than the local public rate.Consequently, people in slums often must pay much more for lower quality water than other urban residents 21. Improving public sanitation is another major urban environmental challenge that needs to be imm ediately addressed in virtually all cities in the developing world. Failure to collect garbage as well as inadequate waste management and recycling policies and practices mean that cities are being inundated in their own waste. In African cities, waste management has been described as a monster that has aborted most efforts made by city authorities, state and federal governments and professionals alike 22.As is the case of the water supply distribution network, sewerage systems are far better at meeting the needs of upper- and middle-class neighborhoods than they are of servicing poorer neighborhoods, particularly unregulated neighborhoods on the urban periphery. A major environmental crisis is looming large as many developing countries as cities discharge ever increasing amounts of waste into the air or into freshwater bodies, threatening water quality and aquatic ecosystems.The extent that urban growth affects the local ecosystem can be controlled to some extent by high quality la nd management. Land is an essential ingredient in all urban growth, yet in most cities there have been virtually no effective measures to control land development. Although many cities have formulated master plans at some time or another that included guidelines on land development and the future direction of urban growth, rarely, if ever, have these plans been realized.Reasons for this include poor urban governance, poor critical assumptions-urban population projections underpinning these plans have often been extremely weak-and the inability of plans to be adjusted and refined in the light of changing conditions, such as the invasion and settling of unused public space. Devising equitable land development policies remains one of the largest challenges facing planners and policy makers in many cities in the developing world. Congestion in many large cities can also be extremely severe and air pollution is now a serious environmental concern in many cities.Concentrations of carbon m onoxide, lead, and suspended particulate matter in many large cities greatly exceed World Health Organization guidelines. Among the greatest environmental health concerns are exposure to fine particulate matter and to lead which contributes to learning disability in young children. A popular response to urban transportation congestion problems has been government investment in large-scale public transportation systems such as underground or overland metro systems.Less attention has been devoted to expanding and improving public bus networks, which tend to be overcrowded and poorly maintained. In many cities, private mini-bus companies have filled a hole in the market by providing low-cost urban transportation where standard bus routes have proved insufficient. Causes of urbanisation Urbanization and city growth are caused by a number of different factors including ruralurban migration, natural population increase, and annexation. Because rates of natural increase are generally sligh tly lower in urban than in rural areas, the principal reasons for rising levels of rbanization are ruralurban migration, the geographic expansion of urban areas through annexations, and the transformation and reclassification of rural villages into subaltern urban settlements. The expansion of the metropolitan periphery can be caused both by the arrival of new migrants and by the sub-urbanization of the middle class out of the central city. The relative importance of each of these various causes of urbanization and suburbanization varies both within and amidst regions and countries.As stated above, over the next 30 years, population growth in general and urban population growth in particular is expected to be particularly rapid in the developing world, averaging 2. 3 per cent per year during 20002030. Although much of the popular palaver on urbanization has left the impression that cities are currently ontogenesis too fast and that growth should be limited or somehow diverted, it is important not to lose sight of the fact that, for the most part, there is an economic logic to the pattern of urbanization 14.In most cases, high growth rates are an indicator of success rather than misfortune and most of the worlds largest cities are located in countries with the worlds largest economies. Many cities in peaceable Asia, for example, have experienced dramatic economic growth, reflecting the fact that the region is totally integrated into the new global economy. Cities on the forefront of global restructuring such as Hong Kong, Singapore, Seoul, and Taipei have enjoyed unprecedented growth rates of more than 10 percent per annum throughout the 1970s and early 1980s.All now rank among the top trading cities in the world and in fact, the level of gross national product (GNP) per capita in Hong Kong and Singapore exceeds that of many European countries. This extremely general descriptive of urban trends and projections naturally masks considerable regional divers ity. There are enormous differences in the pattern of urbanization between regions and even greater variation in the level and speed with which private countries or indeed individual cities within regions are growing.